畢業(yè)英語論文范文
畢業(yè)英語論文范文
畢業(yè)論文(設計)質量是衡量高等職業(yè)院校辦學成果最為重要的依據之一,也是評價一個學生綜合素質的重要標尺。下面是小編為大家推薦的畢業(yè)英語論文范文，供大家參考。
畢業(yè)英語論文范文范文一：商務英語畢業(yè)論文
Implication of Cultural Differences on International Business Negotiations
Abstract
Business negotiations under different cultural conditions are cultural negotiations. With the development of economic globalization and frequent business contacts， cultural differences have
become very important. If they are neglected， they could cause unnecessary misunderstanding， or even undermine the result of business negations. Therefore， it is of great significance to know different cultures of different countries as well as ways to avoid cultural conflicts in the context of international business negotiations. The paper begins with the definition of culture， analyzes the causes of cultural differences and explains the impact of cultural differences on international business negotiations from three perspectives of communication process， negotiation style and values concept. Finally， it analyzes effective ways to deal with the problem arising from cultural differences in the negotiation process. The paper stresses that in business negotiations between different countries negotiators should accept the other party's culture， try to make him be accepted and make a correct evaluation with help of effective communications. In a word， for successful cultural negotiations， cultural differences need to be perceived， accepted and most importantly played down.
Key words:culture cultural difference business negotiation impact
Contents
1. Cultural difference…….………..……...…………………………...…......4
1.1 The definition of culture……………………………………..............….....4
1.2 The causes of cultural differences……………………………..………......4
1.2.1 Geographical differences………………………..………………....….....4
1.2.2 Ethnic differences…………………………..………………....................4
1.2.3 Political differences…………………………..………….………….…...4
1.2.4 Economic differences…………………………………..….……….…....4
1.2.5 Religious differences……………………………………..………….......4
1.2.6 The concept of difference…………………………………...……….......5
1.3 Importance of international business negotiations on Cultural differences…………………………………………………………….…..5
2. Cultural differences on the impact of international business negotiations…………………………………………………..………...........5
2.1 Communication process……………………………...…...……...…....…..5
2.2 Negotiating style…………………...…..……..……………...……….…...8
2.3 Values………………...…………....….……..…………………….......…..8
2.3.1 Ethics………………………………………..……..………………...…..8
2.3.2 Sense………………………..……………………………..……….…. ...8
2.3.3 Concept of Collective…………………………………………………....8
2.3.4 Concept of time……………………………………………………….....8
3. How to deal with international business negotiations and cultural differences……………………..…………………………………………........9
3.1 To learn more about the former in the negotiations of the cultural differences that may arise………...…………………..……………….…..9
3.2 In the negotiations necessary to correctly handle the cultural differences………………………………………………………………...9
3.3 Negotiations to do a good job of follow-up for the exchange of cultural differences…………...…………………………………………......……10
4. References…………………...………….………………………….……....11
Business negotiation in interpersonal relationships as a special form， relate to different geographical， ethnic， social and cultural exchanges and contacts， which have taken place in cross-cultural negotiations. In cross-cultural negotiations， the different geographical， ethnic， cultural differences will affect the thinking of those negotiations， the negotiation style and behavior， thus affecting the entire negotiation process. Therefore， to engage in business activities， especially for the cross-border business activities must understand and master the links between different cultures and differences. Conducting negotiations with the organization， also have to understand that cultural differences impact on the negotiations， only the face of such a positive impact on the desired objectives can be achieved
1. Cultural differences
1.1 the definition of culture
National culture is a country-specific concepts and value systems， which constitute the concept of people's lives and work behavior. The nations of the world as a result of specific historical and geographical and gradually formed its own unique cultural traditions and cultural patterns. As the difference of Chinese and Western traditional customs， values， religious beliefs ， different ways of thinking， etc， making the different performance of Chinese and Western cultures.
1.2 the causes of cultural differences
Cultural diversity caused by many reasons， To sum up， the main source of cultural differences are in the following areas:
1.2.1 geographical differences
Refers to the geographical differences in different geographic regions due to the geographical environment， the level of economic development and traditional differences in habits， people often have different language， lifestyle and hobbies. And these will affect their behavior. For example， the West and the American people in some countries treat Christmas important， but in areas such as near the equator do not have snow all the year round， the people of some African countries may not have the concept of Christmas because the best modified Christmas is snow， as to the people in the region that are not long-term snow ，there is little concentration of Christmas than American States.
1.2.2 national differences
Ethnic differences is the different ethnic groups in the development of long-term process， the formation of their own language， customs and preferences， habits. Their diet， clothing， accommodation， festivals and rituals， such as material and cultural life of their own characteristics. Take the history of our country and our Hun Han， the Xiongnu people are valiant， characteristics of typical nomads. And we tame the Han character， the typical characteristics of farming nation. Which led to the Huns in the diet， clothing， accommodation， festivals and rituals， such as material and cultural life are different with Han.
1.2.3 the political differences
Political differences are due to the political system and the policies and regulations on people's behavior with the role of a standardized， so that all peoples in the political aspects on the concept of the existence are differences. Take the United States and France as example， the United States by the Constitution the powers of the President of the severe restrictions on the two major powers with other institutions of Congress and the Supreme Court of strong constraints. While France also had to set was ready to royalist restoration of the monarchy of the Third Republic to amend the Constitution a little further expand the powers of the president.
1.2.4 economic disparities
Economic differences are result of the economic factors of a reflection of cultural differences. For example， the people in the Western developed countries are rich lives and high level of education， people will pay more attention to the quality of life， security means more generally. And economic backwardness of the Third World， people care more about food and clothing.
1.2.5 religious differences
Religion is the development of human society to a certain stage of historical phenomenon， Religion has its own (Catholic) Major epidemic in Western Europe and South American; Islam is the scope of the whole of the Middle East and North Africa. Buddhism is more prevalent in Asian countries. The world has three major religions: Christianity， Buddhism and Islam. Christian (Protestant) is major epidemic in Northern Europe， North America and Australia; people in many parts of Asia believe in Buddhist. Different religions have different cultural tendencies and precepts， which affect the way of people understand things， codes of conduct and values.
1.2.6 the concept of Values difference
Values are means of objective evaluation criteria of things. It includes the concept of time， wealth， the attitude towards life， the attitude to risk and so on. Different societies’ people to the same things and problems will come to different and even opposite conclusions.
Geographical differences， ethnic differences， political differences， economic differences， religious differences and differences in concepts have the impact on people's penetration in the food， clothing， accommodation， festivals and rituals， such as material and cultural life in all its aspects. Thus affecting people's behavior， values， religious beliefs and modes of thought have a lot of difference， Finally has formed the various countries and areas of cultural differences.
1.3 cultural differences on the importance of international business negotiations
Practice in the negotiations， many negotiators often do not understand， or took note of the cultural importance of the significant impact on negotiations. Negotiating parties for foreign culture， some negotiators may have noticed some of the other negotiations， "different" or "hard to understand" the concrete manifestation of negotiations， but that is not important. Some people blindly believe that negotiation is the use of foreign-related facts and figures to speak， and the facts and data are common. Similarly， some foreign countries’ negotiators to negotiations with each other to maintain harmonious relations， they will notice the similarities between both cultures， while ignoring their differences. Let's look at an example.
In 1992， negotiators from China and other 12 experts of different professions to form a delegation to the United States purchases about 30 million U.S. dollars of chemical equipment and technology. The US naturally does everything possible to satisfy them. One of them is negotiations in the first round of the delegation sent to each of them a small souvenir. The Souvenirs packaging is very particular is a beautiful red box， red for advanced. But when the delegation was pleased to open the box when face-to-face in accordance with the Americans， Everyone's face appears very not the nature actually--there is a golf cap， but the color is green. American businessman's intention is: after signing the contract， and everyone to play golf. But they don’t know the "be a cuckold" is the biggest taboo in Chinese men. Finally the delegation did not sign the contract， not because the Americans "insult" people， but because they work careless， and even don’t know the common sense that Chinese men taboo "be a cuckold". How can we feel free to tens of millions of dollars project to them? It can be seen that the failure of the Americans negotiation is due to they do not understand the Chinese culture.
From the above examples， we can learn in business negotiations， if we do not attach importance to each other's cultural differences， the negotiations are likely to lead to failure.
2. Cultural differences on the impact of international business negotiations
The impact of culture on negotiations is extensive and profound， and different cultures will naturally divided people into different groups， this region， the difference between their respective groups are bringing people of different cultural groups tend to alienate each other; On the other hand， different cultural communication and exchanges between people are also obstacles. Therefore， the requirements of the negotiators to accept each other's culture， but also by cultural differences， unmistakably reveals that the purpose of understanding of each other's behavior， and they have been accepted by the other party， and ultimately reach a consensus agreement.
Overall， the impact on culture negotiations are in following several aspects:
2.1 the communication process
Cultural differences on the communication process of the negotiations， first of all is the performance of the communication language in the negotiation process. Language is a bridge of any country， any region and any nation. States companies， individuals to conduct business negotiations， we must first have the language to this. The differences language of international business activities is the most direct and clear. Such as China's "white elephant" brand batteries， to the English "White Elephant" it would cause bad associations.
Because the "White Elephant" In addition to the name of animals that have two meanings: "The owner did not use， but may be useful to others; do not reuse things." Solve the language problem is very simple， you can hire a translator or use a common third language to talk. While the negotiators of the language used in a variety of cultures with higher fitness， but no matter what， the difference is obvious. Such as Japan， Brazil and France Culture， the Japanese style of business communication is the most polite， more positive commitment to the use of recommended and guarantees， and less use of threats， commands and warnings of freedom of speech， their manners of speech style， The most prominent is that they do not often use "no"， "you" and facial gaze， but to maintain a period of silence; Brazilian businessmen to use "no" and "you" at the higher frequency， their negotiation style seems more presumptuous， and it seems not lonely in the negotiations， to gaze at each other and touch each other from time to time; French businessmen negotiating style is all the most presumptuous， in particular， their use of threats and warnings at the highest frequency， in addition， they are still very frequent use of interrupted， facial gaze， as well as "no" and "you". It can be seen， only to clarify these differences that can avoid the reticent Japanese， Brazilian over enthusiasm or the French’s misunderstanding of the threat， which achieved the success of international business negotiations.
Cultural differences impact on the negotiation process not only in the process of language communication， but also in the process of non-verbal communication. Cultural differences will lead to different countries or regions in the body language of negotiations， the use of action language significantly different， or even the same language of action is diametrically opposed to the transfer of information. For example， the vast majority of countries are in favor of nod his head for agree. But in India， Nepal and other countries that are certainly shaking his head， that is， shaking his head and smiling， that is positive meaning， some people just do it diagonally on the rise is still a good way， some people are a population frequency said "You are right! You are right!" but a continuously shaking his head， often make others do not know its true psychological and full of doubt. But negotiators shape， movement， language， awareness and use of the differences， also create an obstacle for the negotiations in communication.
Cultural differences also can lead to the negotiators of the differences in communication. People of different cultures have their preferences and habits of communication and cross-cultural negotiations in the negotiating parties often belong to different cultures， have their own customary means of communication. Accustomed to different means of communication between the parties to conduct a more depth in communication， often cause a wide range of issues. From countries with a high culture of the negotiators and those from countries with low culture of the negotiators may be in different ways of expression during the negotiation process. From countries with a high culture of the negotiators may be chosen euphemism， indirect ways to express their meaning. While from low culture of the negotiators preference for using oral expression to negotiate， direct or receive a clear message， straightforward means to express themselves. These two negotiators from different cultures during the negotiations， the party think the other side is often too rough， while the other may think that the other side lack of good faith in negotiations， or misunderstanding the silence of each other's conditions for its approval.
2.2 the negotiation style
The negotiation style is the main bearing and the attitude which displays in the negotiations activities. the style of negotiations in the course of negotiators’ behavior， conduct and control of the negotiation process of the method and means. Negotiators negotiations Style with a deep cultural stigma. Culture not only determines the Ethics Code of Ethics for negotiators， but also affects the way of thinking negotiators’ behavior and personality， so that make the negotiators of different cultural backgrounds form a very different style of negotiation. Negotiating style of the negotiation process for the negotiations between the two sides approach the relationship， contacts， and even the structure of the negotiations has a direct impact.
Adhere to cultural differences， negotiating styles can be divided into two types: the negotiation style of Oriental and Western style negotiations. Oriental style is based on negotiations as the background of oriental culture of Asian countries negotiation styles， with Japan， South Korea for a typical representative:
Japanese business men are conservative， attention to status-oriented， credit and the initial cooperation， co-dependent relationship between stress and good at negotiating. Japanese attached great importance to the negotiations in the transaction to establish harmonious interpersonal relationships. If there had been contacts with Japanese， before the negotiations should be recall the past exchanges and friendship between the two sides， which will be beneficial to the next negotiations. They did not support and habit the direct， purely commercial activities. If it is the first time to establish trade relations with Japanese， the party responsible for higher status in charge visits in opposite party enterprise at the same level status person in charge is extremely important， it attached great importance to Japanese companies and the trading relationship with you. When negotiations with Japan， it’s the best to send staff rank and status at high-level than the other side. This will facilitate the conduct of the talks. It should also be noted that Japanese women's status in society is lower， generally they not allowed to participate in the operation and management of large companies activities， the Japanese are also in a number of important occasions of non-female. Therefore， when encountered formal negotiations generally not appropriate to allow women to participate in， or else they may be skeptical， and even expressed dissatisfaction.
Korean character stubborn， often stuck to their own views in the negotiations and will not easily compromise. In this case we must grasp the strategy， it is necessary to adhere to argue， but also common sense to master a certain sense of propriety， and sometimes also need to be patient. On the other hand， South Korea in the negotiations seldom to express the views directly， often need the other side to try to figure out， in order to accurately understand the meaning of each other， South Korea may ask the same question repeatedly， so that when making decisions to ensure the correctness. And South Korea signed a contract does not mean that their success will not be changed， for other reasons they would seek to amend or re-start negotiations with you.
Western-type style of negotiation is based on Western culture of Europe and the United States as the background style of negotiations. The main representatives are the United States and United Kingdom.
Americans often talk about "Business is Business" (business to the business) means doing business need to not recognize one's own closest relatives， insist on the principle of things not for people. "Time is money"， "money is everything" is the unswerving credo of American. Their business activities is often straightforward， be anxious for success， business came straight to the point， they always picking up the phone to talk， sit down and get straight to the point， They calculate the progress by the hour and the number of days， their opponents often feel pressure from them. American businessmen do not like the use an agent or participate in negotiations with the consultant， give others the impression that they can say on behalf of the company. They like to sit down to do business immediately. In addition， the United States businessmen attached great importance to economic benefits， they have a slang called: "Bang for Buck"， that is， with minimum capital investment to obtain the greatest benefit.
British merchants engaged in commercial activities pay more attention to informal traders than other countries in the world， but also more conservative. Even today， the world has entered the electronic information age， in the UK by telephone to talk about business is unacceptable. British businessmen are more willing to make full preparations in advance， and then face-to-face talks. As long as they do not believe that the details of a settlement will not solve， they will never sign， all must have to do as rule. As a result of the British very great importance to the position， the title is also very important to them. Therefore， the selection status of the person as a broker of highly influential business， political forces and the role of trade unions in the business also can not be neglected.
Of course， it also must pay attention to the actual negotiations process， although the same cultural background of the negotiators， the talks there was a clear difference， but subject to sub-culture， as well as other factors， the same cultural background of individual negotiators， the negotiations style can be very different.
2.3 Cultural values
Cultural values is measure the consequences of people's behavior and standards. They affecting the way of people understanding the problems and will give rise to a strong emotional impact. In different cultures， values will be very different. Culture in a very appropriate behavior in another culture may be seen as immoral. For example， Americans believe that nepotism is immoral， however it as an obligation at the majority of Latin American culture. Therefore， the Understanding of a certain society in popular as well as these ideas in the personal behavior the degree which respects is very important. Our discussions here will focus on those activities is essential to understand the socio-economic values， more specifically， is these for promote the cross-cultural communicative competence and the values is worth noting.
2.3.1 Ethics
China has heavier ethics. "Acquaintance" and "relationship" has its own special meaning and significance， once the relations have been established， the two sides have become acquaintances or friends， and generous concessions to help the situation appear， and the degree of trust and tolerance will be improved， so the Chinese people have more oral agreement. Americans is not the case， they do not pay attention to cultivating the feelings of both sides， and attempts to separate business and friendship. To deal with the problem， often used the legal means， lawyers come forward to solve the problem is common， it is flexible and not rigid， we should clearly recognize this point. However， once sign the contract， they are very much focused on the legal contract， the performance of the contract is higher. The Chinese delegation to the West， maybe a long time no one could entertain， and this misunderstanding of the people are not interested in their visit; Europeans come to China， No matter what they do may find that there are people who accompanied， and this misunderstanding of the people lack of trust in them. Of foreign visitors， a senior care too much， not to mention dinner， often mistakenly believe that this expressed his company's products or have a preference， this in fact is the Chinese hospitality， This can lead to subsequent disappointment， and even complain.
2.3.2group awareness
In the course of the Chinese and Western cultural traditions and different cultural values， on the negotiations issues tend to have a confrontation or misunderstanding. China's national character has a very remarkable phenomenon， that is Settles on the face or the dignity. At the negotiating table， if make a choice from "decent" and "interest"， both the Chinese people will often choose to "decent." Why do the Chinese people want to save face at all costs? Because of the ideological core of Chinese culture is a group consciousness. In accordance with the sense that each one is not a separate person， but living in a certain social relations， and no face will not the face of others， there is no face on the people and will not be able to live in the social and group life， and may even be abandoned by society and the groups. But not like Westerners， they value the interests of negotiations， they will not hesitate to choose interest from "decent" and "interest" of the two. Chinese people regarding negotiations result whether can bring honor for their face， looks extremely important， as well as some Western negotiators in their works cautioned China in the talks， we must note that use of China's national character. It is clear that only a correct understanding and properly grasp the existence of Chinese and Western differences in national character， can effectively help us in a timely manner to correct our own shortcomings and strengthen our own advantages and use of other's shortcomings to collapse of other's strengths.
2.3.3 the concept of collective
China's concept of collective a stronger emphasis on collective responsibility， Therefore the negotiations pattern basically is the collective， but to make the final decisions are a decisive one， and even the decisive one simply has not entered the stage. This is known as the cultural experts of "high from the right to culture"， in the event of difficult issues more complicated， the negotiators on the difficult decisions; and the Western culture of Jurists which was referred to as "low from the right to culture"， on the surface is one or two people out， negotiators have been given the appropriate permissions， or assisted in its decision-making think-tank， which in the negotiations， the sole responsibility of the negotiations were heavier， higher and more flexible.
2.3.4 the concept of time
Concept of time and how it decided the people's action plan for international business negotiations has a broad impact of the invisible. The daily negotiations behavior manifests observes the difference aspect of time may be is the most obvious results of the performance. Jewish businessmen attached great importance of time. They always believe that time is not money， time and goods， is the capital to make money. Money can borrow， but time can not be borrowed， the time is more valuable than money. A wealthy Jewish income of 200，000 US dollars monthly have been considered such an account: his daily wage is 8 1000 U.S dollars， then about 17 U.S. dollars per minute. If he had been disturbed and waste 5 minutes， then is the equivalent of stolen 85 U.S. dollars in cash. Strong concept of time improved the efficiency of the Jews， they are often at work in seconds and every second counts. On the Jewish people， never appear leave early， late， or to stall for time and so on. In the business activities of the Jews "Uninvited guest" is almost as the same as the “unwelcome person”， because uninvited guests will disrupt the timing of the original， and waste everybody's time. For the time extremely mean of the Jewish， in the time to discuss the concept of time is stronger. Before Jews in the negotiations， the time must have been agreement. They agreed not only in a certain period of a day， but also appointment "from the starting points to a few minutes to talk about." During the meeting， in addition to polite greetings outside， the Jews immediately to discuss business， this is have good manners and good performance， at the same time that mean respect of each other.
3. how to deal with the cultural differences on international business negotiations
Only recognize and accommodate cultural differences can take the whole process of negotiations in response to countermeasures， including before the negotiations that may arise cultural differences， correctly handle the cultural differences on negotiations， do a good job of follow-up for the exchange of cultural differences after negotiations.
3.1 before the negotiations to understand the cultural differences that may arise
It is essential to understand cultural differences before negotiations. Preparatory work for negotiations include: the background of negotiations and assessment of the situation， to verify the fact the negotiation process， the agenda， the best strategy options and concessions. The background of the negotiations also include the location， site layout， bargaining unit， the Senate on the number of listeners， the channels of communication and the time limit of negotiations. All these preparations must be taken into account possible of cultural differences. For example， the venue layout of cultural differences may have a slightly affected of the cooperation. In the culture of heavier hierarchy， if the room arrangement improper， more casually， it could lead to anxiety and even anger of the other side.
In addition， negotiations styles are due to culture differences. American culture tend to work together "to finalize an agreement"; and Japanese culture likes to talk with everyone separately， if everyone agrees， then arranges a broader scope discussion; the Russian people like a total approach， and one to talk about to settle an agreement， and then the front of the two parties invite a third party， so continue.
Time limit for the control of the negotiations is also very important. Different cultures have different concepts of time. Such as North America， the concept of time is a strong culture， for Americans， time is money. The culture of the Middle East and Latin America was relatively weak concept of time， in their view， time should be enjoyed. Thus， in international business negotiations， the concept of time differences should be prepared.
3.2 correct handling of cultural differences in the negotiations
First of all， the choice of language and use in the negotiations， for the Western countries， we must take the exchange-oriented approach， as simple clear as possible， and frank expression of his own ideas， not ambiguous and vague. For example， Americans like argued， language has a confrontational， drastic tone， they think that argued not only the right to express his personal views， but also conducive to problem-solving， divergent points of view will not affect the interpersonal relationships. In the oriental culture， in order to preserve the face sides of others， the face groups or other people's face， frequent use of ambiguous and indirect language. Even if they disagree with other's views， it's rare to be rejected or refuted directly， but rather tortuous statement of his views， or to show embarrassment. The values of "Harmony" is the Chinese people to create an atmosphere of harmony as an important means of negotiations， in the negotiating process， they try to avoid friction， and friendship first， they pursued by a permanent long-term friendship and cooperation.
Secondly， the method in the negotiations， to the United States as an example， as a result of the Oriental mode of thinking is the overall orientation， their use in the negotiations is that from the overall to local， descending from general to specific， that is， first reach a consensus of general principles， and then use this to guide specific programs to solve the problem. They do not have an obvious sequence of points， usually until the end of the negotiations， all issues will be made in concessions and commitments in order to reach an agreement. Due to the impact mode of thinking， Westerners analysis the most important things in their logical relationship between the re-specific than the whole， at the beginning of negotiations， they hurry to talk about the specific terms. Therefore， we often resolve the price， delivery， warranties and service contracts and other issues at times， solve each problem， there are concessions and commitments from start to finish， the final agreement is the sum of a series small agreements.
3.3 to do a good job of follow-up for the exchange of cultural differences after negotiations
Related to contract management and follow-up to the exchange of management behavior after negotiations， first as contract， in which the relationship between people-oriented countries such as China， to resolve their disputes often do not rely solely on the legal system， and often rely on the two sides relations. In these cultures， a written contract is very short， it mainly used to describe the respective responsibilities of business partners. Western countries such as the American culture， they generally will regard the contract signing ceremony as not only a waste of time but also a waste of money， so the contract is often signed by send mail. Exchange on the follow-up， the American cultural emphasis on the "distinction between people and things"， so they did not pay attention to follow-up exchanges. Oriental culture in countries such as Japan， keep the majority of the follow-up of foreign exchange customers as international business was an important part of the negotiations. They signed the contract after a long time， they will also carry out as letters， pictures， and exchange visits.
The above analysis of the cultural differences and their impact on international business negotiations， any business men engaged in cross-cultural activities should be highly priority. A cultural difference is an objective reality， the attitude of individuals or groups tend to determine the role of cultural differences， it can exaggerate the cultural differences and also reduce the barrier which causes the cultural difference to the lowest point. People in cross-cultural business negotiations， if able to overcome cultural barriers， to understand， do as the Romans do， learning to stand on other people's point to think， that we can promote mutual understanding and work together to adapt the two sides and create an economic and cultural environment， so that we can success.
4. References
【1】Cao Ling editor: "Business English negotiations，" Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press， 2004
【2】Xie Xiaoying editor: "Business English negotiations"， China Business Press， 2005
【3】Qiu Gejia，Yang Guojun editor: "win-win negotiations of modern business English"， China International Radio Press， 2006
【4】Weng Fengxiang edited: "An Introduction to International Business"， Tsinghua University Press / Beijing Jiao tong University Press， 2006
【5】William • Hampton with: "Jewish businessmen in business start-up experience and wisdom，" translated Zheng Ping， Harbin Publishing House， 2003
畢業(yè)英語論文范文范文二：商務英語論文范文
關鍵詞：模糊語商務英語語用策略
商務英語論文范文〔 摘要〕由于語言的本質屬性、商務活動的不確定性等原因, 商務英語要遵循的合作原則、禮貌原則, 需要使用模糊語言。使用模糊語言目的是探討交際雙方當事人如何順應語境, 選擇恰當的模糊語言來達到他們所追求的交際效果。在交際中模糊語用策略的使用, 受一定的語境及不同話題的限制, 有時出于禮貌, 使交談雙方繼續(xù)保持友好關系; 有時為了相互尊重, 給彼此本論文由英語論文網www.51lunwen.org整理提供留點面子; 或者為了談判雙方共同的利益, 從而為談判留有余地。
[ Abstract] Business English foll ows the p rinci p les of cooperati on and courtesy because of the essence of language and uncertainties of business activities, which results in the app licati on of vague language1 The pur pose of using vague language is t o exp l ore how the t wo parties comp lywith the context and choose app r op riate vague language t o achieve the desired communicative effect1 The app licati on of vague language is restricted by certain context and different t op ics : s ometi mes courtesy is needed t o continue t o maintain friendly relati ons ; s ometi mes res pect is needed t o save face, or leave room for further negotiati ons based on mutual benefits1
[ Key words] vague language; business English; p ragmatic p rinci p les
20世紀 20年代 , 著名的哲學家和數學家 B1 Russell就寫出了有關 “ 含糊性 ”的論文。他認為所有的自然語言均是模糊的 , 比如 “ 紅的 ”和 “老的 ”等概念沒有明確的內涵和外延 , 因而是不明確的和模糊的?？墒?, 在特定的環(huán)境中 , 人們用這些概念來描述某個具體對象時卻又能心領神會 , 很少引起誤解和歧義。1965年美國控制專家、數學家札德發(fā)表了 《模糊集合 》的論文 , 文中首次提出表達事物模糊性的重要概念: 隸屬函數 , 從而突破了 19世紀末笛卡爾的經典集合理論 , 奠定模糊理論的基礎。他明確指出: “模糊集合是其成員隸屬度構成一個連續(xù)集的所有成員組成的一個類。 ”在傳統集合論中 , 每一個集合的成員要么屬于它 (隸屬度為 1) , 要么不屬于它 (本論文由英語論文網www.51lunwen.org整理提供隸屬度為 0)。在札德看來 , 對現實的自然界中碰到的對象進行分類時 , 經常會找不到精確判定其資格的根據。他指出: “‘ 美人 ’或 ‘ 高個子 ’這些概念并不能構成一般數學意義上的類或集合。但事實上 , 這種不能精確劃分的類在人類的思維中卻起著重要的作用。 ”因此 , 札德認為各門學科 , 尤其是人文、社會學科及其它“ 軟科學 ”都可以用模糊集合的方法來處理模糊現象 , 來研究模糊概念。模糊集合論適用于語言模糊性研究的一個根本原因在于語言范疇實際上就是某一個論域中的模糊集合。范疇的核心部分是范疇中所有成員共有的典型屬性 (相當于集合的定義 ) , 是明確的; 但是范疇的邊緣 (相當于集合的外延即組成該集合的所有元素 ) 卻是模糊的 , 不能明確地加以確定。
一、商務英語中合作原則的運用內在要求利用語用模糊
美國語言學家 Grice認為在所有的語言交際活動中 , 說話人和聽話人之間存在一種默契 , 一種雙方都應遵守的原則 , 他稱這種原則為會話的合作原則。合作原則這條根本原則可以具體體現為四條準則: 一是量的準則 (QuantityMax2i m) , 使自己所說的話達到交談的現時目的所需求的詳盡程度。不能使自己所說的話比所要求的更詳盡。二是質的準則(QualityMaxi m )。不要說自己認為是不真實的話。不要說自己缺乏足夠證據的話。三是關系準則 (Relevant Maxi m ) ,說話要貼切 , 要有關聯。四是方式準則 (MannerMaxi m ) ,避免晦澀的詞語。避免歧義 , 說話要簡要 , 話語要有條理。這四條準則中數量準則規(guī)定了我們說話時所傳遞的信息量 , 商務英語尤其要遵守這些原則: 商務活動非常講究工作效率 , 注重實效 , 不浪費時間 , 一般直截了當地表達主題 ,所以要遵循量的準則。本論文由英語論文網www.51lunwen.org整理提供商務活動強調雙方的合作必須真誠 ,真實是基礎 , 否則交易活動難以為繼 , 要求溝通要講究質的準則。無論是商務談判、商務文書還是商務廣告中 , 話語必須和語境 (商品推銷或服務 ) 具有最佳關聯性 , 對象通過推理 , 明白了話語的 (隱含 ) 內容 , 才能采取行動。商務英語中數字的表達要求言之確鑿 , 不能模棱兩可; 商務活動的結果一般形諸法律文本 , 對雙方都具有法律約束力 , 行文應該嚴謹。但這四條準則畢竟是幾條約定俗成的規(guī)約 , 它們不同于嚴格的語言規(guī)則 , 并不是絕對不可違反的。從消極語用來分析 , 在商務活動中: 當交流者不能夠準確表達含義時 , 例如: The sun is ablaze, the Wag on is humming nicely down theintestate1或當交流者不愿意明確表達含義時 , 例如: We areinterested in contracting a number of p r ominent manufacturers inBritain with a view t o choose lines suitable for the Spanishmarket1[ 1 ]這些情景在商務活動中經常發(fā)生 , 如果使用模糊語言 , 不僅會起到意想不到的效果 , 更重要的是關系主體能否遵從合作原則的內在要求。 從積極語用模糊來分析 , 可以從語境、商務活動發(fā)出信息的人和信息接受者三個角度進行探討。首先 , 商務活動都有著較強的目的性、趨利性 , 然而在活動中存在較多的不確定性和風險性 , 往往形成商務活動的特殊語境 , 這種語境為商務活動中模糊語言的應用提供了載體 , 它是模糊語言發(fā)揮作用的場景 , 一旦模糊語言成為采用的一種語言策略 , 為了達到成功交際的目的 , 使用話語時就必須考慮語境因素。其次是商務的交流者 , 要順應一系列的社會因素、心理因素及自然因素 , 在進行商務交流時 , 要順應最基本的利益因素 ,因為商業(yè)本身就是由利益關系所驅動的。最后 , 信息接受者應該用最佳關聯原則來理解商務交際中的模糊語言 , 根據Sperber &Wilson的觀點 , 在交流過程中人們往往希望不費力氣來實現最大的話語本論文由英語論文網www.51lunwen.org整理提供效果。關聯指最佳關聯而不是最大關聯 , 也就是在勞動付出和所得之間找到最佳的切合點。積極語用模糊就是最佳關聯的典型例子 , 當信息發(fā)出者表達他的觀點時 , 接受人要根據語境來理解其真正意圖。例如: Weare s orry t o say that your Price is out of line with the Prevailingmarket level1 We are obtaining the same quality thr ough otherchannels at a much l ower p rice1從中我們可以看出 , 收信人從這段文字中提取的信息不是其他渠道和價格的確切內容 , 而是寫信人的言外之意: 即你方價格太高。在商務英語表達中模糊語言是一個十分普遍的現象 , 它存在于各類商務活動中 , 在不同表達中模糊語言的使用頻率有所不同。分析表明 , 模糊語言更常見于壞消息和推銷信函中 , 而在好消息和中性消息信函中相對少見。這主要由于好消息和中性消息僅僅是陳述事實 , 而壞消息和推銷信函涉及各方利益。
二、商務英語中禮貌原則的運用需要發(fā)揮語用模糊的作用
在言語交際中 , 禮貌問題可以說是合作原則的一個部分 , 因為 Grice的合作原則只解釋了話語的字面意義和它的實際意義的關系 , 解釋了人們的 “ 言下之意 ”如何產生 , 如何理解; 但它沒有說明為什么說話人要有意地違反合作原則來含蓄地表達自己的真意。Leech為這個問題找到了一個較為合理的答案: 那就是出自禮貌的考慮。于是 , 他更進一步提出 , 禮貌原則不再從屬于合作原則 , 而與合作原則并重。禮貌原則共有六項準則 , 每項準則又有兩條次準則: 一是得體準則 (TactMaxi m)。減少表達有損他人的觀點。盡量少讓別人吃虧; 盡量多使別人得益。二是慷慨準則 ( Gener osityMaxi m)。盡量少使自己得益; 盡量多讓自己吃虧。3.贊譽準則 ( App robati onMaxi m )。盡量少貶低別人; 盡量多贊譽別人。4.謙遜準則 (ModestyMaxi m)。盡量少贊譽自己; 盡量多貶低自己。5.一致準則 (AgreementMaxi m)。盡量減少雙方的分歧; 盡量增加雙方的一致。6.同情準則 ( SympathyMaxi m)。盡量減少雙方的反感; 盡量增加雙方的同情[ 2 ]。在商務活動中參加交際活動的人都是理性經濟人 , 即“ 一個具有面子需求的理性經濟人 ” , 通俗些說就是社會商業(yè)組織中具有一定商業(yè)目的正常交際能力的人。這種典型人具有兩種特殊的品質: 理性和面子。理性經濟人首先具有商業(yè)“ 理性 ” , 不僅指交際雙方能運用一定的模式進行實施推理的能力 , 而且還包括從商務交際的目標出發(fā) , 確定達到這些目標所應運用的最佳手段的能力。其次理性經濟人又是社會成員 , 具有面子觀 , 所謂面子觀即是每個社會成員意欲為自己掙得的那種在公眾中個人形象 ( the public self - i mage) 與自己所在的組織的形象 ( the public organizati onal i mage) , 以及相應的一系列心理狀態(tài) , 它分為消極面子 ( negative face) 和積極面子 (positive face)。消極面子是指不希望別人強加于自己 , 自己的行為不受別人干涉阻礙。積極面子是希望得到別人的贊同、喜愛。只有具有面子和理性的典型人 , 才能使正常的交際得以順利進行。Leech在合作原則、言內之義( sense) 和言外之意 ( force) 之間建立起來的禮貌原則的核心內容一一得體準則 ( Tact Maxi m )、謙遜準則 (ModestyMaxi m) 和一致準則 (AgreementMaxi m) 正是語用模糊巧妙運用其三者關系的體現[ 3 ]。在 Goffman“ 面子觀 ”基礎上建立的積極禮貌和消極禮貌也體現出語用模糊的積極性和消極性運用。Br own和 Levins on認為 , 許多言語行為本質上是威脅面子的 , 講究禮貌就是要減輕某些交際行為給面子帶來威脅。于是 , 提出了五種補救策略 , 依次為: 不使用補救策略、赤裸裸地公開施行面子威脅行為; 積極禮貌策略; 消極禮貌策略; 非公開地施行面子威脅行為; 不施行面子威脅行為[ 4 ]。模糊語的使用是體現雙方遵守禮貌原則的重要手段之一。根據其定義 , 模糊語可以使話語更模糊即更委婉 , 更得體。按其功能分類來說 , 模糊語可以就話題的真實程度和涉及范圍對話題內容做出修正 , 這種修正往往體現了禮貌原則中的得體、謙遜和一致等準則; 它還可以就話題的內容做主觀的測度或提出客觀的依據 , 對話題本論文由英語論文網www.51lunwen.org整理提供作間接的評估 , 這正體現了禮貌原則中的同情、慷慨和贊譽等準則。由于語用模糊的普遍 , 當我們說話人的模糊話語出于語言系統以外的考慮 , 語言便會顯得更為委婉和間接。一些模糊語用技巧和溝通策略可以在我們日常的商務英語中充分應用 , 以達到和商業(yè)合作者或競爭者實現良好的溝通 , 維護自己的利益 , 實現自己和他人正面的社會價值 , 并避免自己的意圖被對方輕易識破 ,維護自身的商業(yè)秘密和利益等目的。
三、語用模糊在商務英語語用中的策略
1.活用合作原則和自我保護策略。采用似乎和主題無關或模糊不清或概念不明而實際上又暗含明確條件的詞句 , 往往可以使得對方難以防范 , 放松警惕 , 最終達到自己的目的。特別是在和對方商務談判的過程中 , 談判雙方都遵循“ 實力政策 ”和 “利益驅動 ”的機制 , 運用各種謀略和計策 , 活用合作原則中的量、質的準則 , 或聲東擊西 , 或以辯作答。談判語言的模糊性是由商務交際的戰(zhàn)略和策略所決定的 , 這一特性是服務于交際者的目的和需要的。如: We cannot begin shi pp ing until Sep tember 21We will begin shi pp ing in early Sep tember1在我們日常的商務溝通和談判中 , 一個基本的原則就是強調積極方面。告訴讀者你能做什么 , 而非你不能做什本論文由英語論文網www.51lunwen.org整理提供么。第一句話聽來就讓人覺得在希望時間里進行有效率的運輸目前是有問題。第二句表達從正面使用了語用模糊 , 既讓人感覺到誠意又防止了意外 , 對于保護自己產生了積極作用。
2.用模糊限制語使語意模糊化 , 給商務活動留有空間。使用模糊限制語可以對語意進行變更 , 當事人遇到一些不確定的場合而主觀無法判斷 , 模糊限制語可以就話語的真實程度或涉及范圍對話語的內容進行修正。這方面包括程度變動語和范圍變動語 , 直接緩和語和間接緩和語。如果是對原話語意義做某種程度的修正的詞語 , 即為 “程度變動語 ” , 如“ 有點兒 ” 、 “ 幾乎 ” 、“ 相當 ” ; 給原話語定出一個變動范圍的詞語 , 即所謂的 “范圍變動語 ” , 如 “大約 ” 、“左右 ” 。直接緩和語是說話者對話題直接猜測 , 或者表示說話者本人的猶豫態(tài)度 , 如 “ 我認為 ……” , 間接緩和語通過一些有根據 , 有來源的如 “ 根據 …… 所說 ” 。例如:Anyhow, I am afraid the i mp licati ons of these t wo items aresomewhat different1And I think we can p r obably justmake shi pment before June1As far as I can tell you right now, we start i mmediately1I caught the t welve s omething p lane1以上 3句話 , 說話者用 “Anyhow”“, s omewhat” , “Ithink” , “s omething”“, As far as I can”這些模糊限制語能夠幫助他們體面地應付過去。 3.采取迂回戰(zhàn)術 , 表達模糊 , 避免直言 , 講究禮貌策略。如前所述話語的禮貌主要體現為對交際雙方面子的關注 , 用來維護面子的策略有積極面子策略和消極面子策略。前者表現為抬高對方的積極面子 , 如夸獎對方、表示與對方具有共同點、用親昵的方式稱呼對方等。后者體現為緩和對方消極面子的威脅 , 表示不愿強加; 道歉; 由于涉外場合的制約 , 不宜正面回答的; 為了避免不利形勢的出現 , 交際人員常常需要回避直言。 如: Do drop r ound and visit us s ometi me1Thank you, Iwould l ove t o1主人表示的 “邀請 ”是模糊的 , 它沒明確的日期和時間 , 這樣的表達方式照顧了聽者做出選擇時可能有的困難;也使得聽話人做出拒絕的選擇時不使說話人處于窘境。說話者采用了寬宏準則邀請聽者訪問 , 而且模糊詞 “s ometi me”的使用 , 維護了聽者的消極面子。又如: That’s t oo high! It will be difficult for us t o makeany sales1But I believe we’l. have a hard ti me convincing our clientsat your p rice1根據句意 , 表明對方價格太高 , 無法接受。但說話者并未使用 “i mpossible”之類的絕對字眼 , 取而代之的是 “dif2ficult” , “hard ti me”等模糊詞語 , 說話者強調很難接受太高的價格 , 表明己方的立場 , 同時 , 又為后續(xù)的談判留有余地 , 不至于用 “ 不可能 ”這樣的字眼將談判逼進死胡同。4.表達受權有本論文由英語論文網www.51lunwen.org整理提供限, 不做明確表態(tài)。一般地商務談判雙方在利益上是對立性的, 但在語言表達上雙方都表現得非常友好, 因此, 當事人有必要有所保留[5 ], 運用模糊語言, 尤其是當當事人遇到一些敏感問題, 由于身份或者場合的關系無法明確表態(tài)時, 常常可以借助一些模糊表達加以處理。例如:As far as I’m concerned, we do1 But of course I have t ocheck with my boss first1總的來說 , 說話者是否真的和老板商量過 , 我們不知道。但這確實是一種受權限制的表現 , 說話者通過這種策略 , 給自己更多的時間去考慮這筆交易。最后 , 他可以以此為借口拒絕對方的要求 , 卻不會損害彼此的面子。又如: To be honest, the p r oblem you put for ward maybes olved if I have the final1 But I am sorry I can’t decide1說話者直接把決定權轉嫁給上級 , 表達受權有限 , 無法解決對方提出的問題。做出假設 , 如果自己有足夠的權力就能幫助對方解決問題。
四、結語
綜上所述 , 一般地商務英語要遵循合作原則、禮貌原則 , 但由于語言的本質屬性、商務活動的不確定性等原因 ,合作原則中的準則需要靈活運用 , 不宜照搬 , 要使用模糊語言進行處理 , 而商務活動中禮貌原則的運用需要發(fā)揮模糊語言的作用。總的來說 , 雙方為了順利實現交際意圖而故意使用模糊語言的情況 , 目的是探討雙方當事人如何順應語境 ,選擇恰當的模糊語言來達到他們所追求的交際效果。在商務英語交際中模糊語用策略: 有時出于禮貌 , 使交談雙本論文由英語論文網www.51lunwen.org整理提供方繼續(xù)保持友好關系; 有時為了相互尊重 , 給彼此留點面子; 或者為了談判雙方共同的利益 , 從而為談判留有余地; 有時是受權有限 , 把決定權留給上級。模糊語言的使用 , 要受一定的語境及不同話題的限制。
〔 參考文獻〕
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