愛(ài)因斯坦的簡(jiǎn)介英文
愛(ài)因斯坦的簡(jiǎn)介英文
阿爾伯特·愛(ài)因斯坦，猶太裔物理學(xué)家，被公認(rèn)為是繼伽利略、牛頓以來(lái)最偉大的物理學(xué)家，下面是學(xué)習(xí)啦小編為你整理的愛(ài)因斯坦的簡(jiǎn)介英文，希望對(duì)你有用!
阿爾伯特·愛(ài)因斯坦簡(jiǎn)介
Albert Einstein (Albert.Einstein, March 14, 1879 - April 18, 1955), Jewish physicist.
Einstein was born in 1891 in Ulm, Germany, a Jewish family (parents are Jews), 1900 graduated from the Zurich Federal Institute of Technology, into the Swiss nationality. In 1905, by the University of Zurich Ph.D., Einstein proposed photon hypothesis, successfully explained the photoelectric effect, so won the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics, the creation of special relativity. In 1915 founded the general theory of relativity.
Einstein laid the theoretical foundation for nuclear energy development, creating a new era of modern science and technology, is recognized as Galileo, Newton since the greatest physicist. December 26, 1999, Einstein was the United States, "Time magazine" named "century great man".
阿爾伯特·愛(ài)因斯坦主要成就
relativity
The creation of special relativity:
As early as the age of 16, Einstein learned from the book that the light is moving rapidly with the speed of electromagnetic waves, linked to this, he would like to explore the so-called ether with the light of the problem. The name of the ether comes from Greece, to represent the basic elements that make up the objects of heaven. The 17th century Descartes and the subsequent Christian Huygens pioneered and developed the theory of ether, that the ether is the medium of light propagation, it is full of space, including vacuum, and can penetrate into the material. Unlike ether, Newton made the light particles say. Newton believes that the luminous body is emitted by a linear motion of particles of particles flow, particle flow impact of the retina caused vision. 18th century Newton's particles said the upper hand, the 19th century, it is volatile that accounted for an absolute advantage. The theory of ether is also greatly developed: the wave of the need for media transmission, light in the vacuum is the transmission of the media, also known as light ether. At the same time, the electromagnetism has been flourishing, through the Maxwell, Hertz and others efforts to form a mature electromagnetic phenomenon dynamics theory - electrodynamics, and from the theory and practice to prove that the light is a certain frequency range of electromagnetic waves , Thus unifying the wave theory of light and electromagnetic theory. The ether is not only the carrier of the light, but also the carrier of the electromagnetic field. Until the end of the nineteenth century, people tried to find the ether, but never found in the experiment ether, on the contrary, Michelson Morey experiment found that the ether is unlikely to exist.
The development of electromagnetism was originally incorporated into the framework of Newtonian mechanics, but in interpreting the electromagnetic process of moving objects it was found that the relativity principle followed by Newtonian mechanics was inconsistent. According to Maxwell's theory, the velocity of electromagnetic waves in vacuum, that is, the speed of light is constant; however, according to Newton's method of velocity addition, the speed of light of different inertial lines is different. For example, two cars, one approaching to you, one away. You see the lights of the front car close to you, after a car light away. According to Galileo theory, the car coming to you will emit light with a speed greater than c (vacuum light velocity 3.0x10 ^ 8m / s), that is, the speed of the light in front of the vehicle = speed of light + speed; and the speed of light from the vehicle is less than The speed of the rear car light = speed of light - speed. But according to the speed of the two light the same, because in Maxwell's theory, the speed of the car does not affect the spread of light, that white regardless of how the car, the speed of light is equal to c. Maxwell and Galileo on the speed of the argument is clearly contrary!
Einstein seems to be the one who will build a new physics building. Einstein carefully studied Maxwell's theory of electromagnetism, especially through the development and elaboration of electrodynamics by Hertz and Lorentz. Einstein firmly believes that the electromagnetic theory is completely correct, but there is a problem that makes him uneasy, this is the absolute reference to the presence of the ether. He read many of the works found that everyone tried to prove that the existence of the ether test is a failure. After studying Einstein found that, in addition to the absolute reference system and the electromagnetic field of the load, the ether in the Lorentz theory has no practical significance.
Einstein loves to read philosophical works and absorb thought and nutrition from philosophy, and he believes in the unity and logical coherence of the world. The suspicion of the general validity of the causal law at David Hume in the Olympia Academy of Sciences has had an impact on Einstein. The principle of relativity has been widely proved in mechanics, but can not be established in electrodynamics, for the two theoretical systems of physics in the logical inconsistency, Einstein raised doubts. In his view, the principle of relativity should be generally established, so the electromagnetic theory for each inertial system should have the same form, but here there is the problem of speed of light. Whether the speed of light is constant or variable, becomes the primary problem of whether the principle of relativity is universally established. At that time the physicists generally believed in the ether, that is, believe that there is an absolute reference system, which is affected by the concept of Newton's absolute space. At the end of the nineteenth century, Mach in the "development of mechanics", criticized the Newton's absolute view of time and space, which gave Einstein left a deep impression. One day in May 1905, Einstein and a friend Besso discussed this issue has been explored for ten years, Bezuo in accordance with the Marxist point of view to elaborate their views, the two discussed for a long time. Suddenly, Einstein realized what, back home after repeated thinking, and finally want to understand the problem. The next day, he came to the Peso family, said: Thank you, my problem solved. The original Einstein wanted to clear one thing: there is no absolute definition of time, time and the speed of the optical signal has an inseparable link. He found the key to unlock, after five weeks of hard work, Einstein to the special theory of relativity in front of people.
June 30, 1905, the German "Yearbook of Physics" accepted the Einstein's paper "on the dynamic of electromagnetism", published in the same year in September issue. This paper is the first article on the theory of special relativity, which contains the basic idea and basic content of the special theory of relativity. The special theory of relativity is based on two principles: the principle of relativity and the principle of constant speed of light. Einstein's solution to the problem is that he believes in the principle of relativity. Galileo first clarified the idea of relativity, but he did not give a clear definition of time and space. Newton also established the relativity of the mechanical system, but defined the absolute space, absolute time and absolute movement, in this issue he is contradictory. And Einstein greatly developed the principle of relativity, in his view, there is no absolute static space, the same does not exist absolutely the same time, all the time and space are associated with the movement of the object together. For any frame of reference and coordinate system, there is only space and time belonging to this frame of reference and coordinate system.
For all the inertial system, the use of the reference system of space and time to express the physical laws, their form is the same, this is the principle of relativity, strictly speaking, the principle of relativity in the narrow sense. In this article, Einstein did not discuss the constant speed of light as a basis for the basic principle, he proposed the same speed of light is a bold assumption, from the electromagnetic theory and the principle of relativity requirements put forward. This article is the result of Einstein's thinking about the issue of etherics and electrodynamics over the years. He has established a new time and space theory from the point of view of the relativity of the same time, and on the basis of the new space-time theory Electromynamics in a complete form, the ether is no longer necessary, the ether raft is not there.
What is the reciprocity of the simultaneous? The two events in different places How can we know that it is happening at the same time? In general, we will confirm by signal. In order to know the simultaneity of the off-site events we have to know the speed of signal transmission, but how to measure this speed? We must measure the space distance between the two places and the time required for signal transmission, space distance measurement is very simple, The trouble is to measure the time, we must assume that each of the two has a good clock, from the two clocks of the reading can know the time of signal transmission. But how do we know the clocks in different places? The answer is that there is a need for a signal. If the signal in accordance with the previous ideas, it needs a new signal, so infinite back, off-site at the same time can not actually confirm. But one thing is clear, at the same time will be associated with a signal, or we say that these two things happen at the same time is meaningless.
The optical signal may be the most appropriate signal for the clock, but the speed of light is not infinite, thus producing a novel conclusion, for the stationary observer at the same time two things, for the movement of the observer is not the same time. We envision a high-speed train that runs at speeds close to the speed of light. When the train passes through the platform, A stands on the platform, two lightning strokes in front of the eye, one at the front of the train, one at the back, and at the ends of the train and the corresponding parts of the platform, The distance between the two ends of the train is equal, the conclusion is that A is also seen two lightning. So for A, the two received optical signals propagate the same distance at the same time interval and arrive at the same time, both of which must occur at the same time, and they are simultaneous. But for the middle of the train inside the B, the situation is different, because B and high-speed train running together, so he will first intercept the front of the signal forwarded to him, and then received from the back of the optical signal. For the second thing, the two events are different. In other words, the simultaneity is not absolute, but depends on the observer's movement. This conclusion negates the absolute time and absolute spatial framework that is based on Newtonian mechanics.
Relativity holds that the speed of light does not change in all inertial reference frames, it is the maximum velocity of the object movement. Due to the relativistic effect, the length of the moving object becomes shorter and the time of the moving object expands. But because of the problems encountered in daily life, the movement speed is very low (compared with the speed of light), do not see the relativistic effect.
Einstein established the theory of relativity on the basis of the radical change of space and time, and pointed out that the quality increases with the increase of speed, and when the speed is close to the speed of light, the quality tends to infinity. He also gives the famous qualitative relationship: E = mc ^ 2, the qualitative relationship has played a guiding role in the later development of the atomic energy industry.
The establishment of general relativity:
In 1905, Einstein published the first article on the theory of special relativity (ie, "the dynamics of the dynamics"), and did not immediately aroused great repercussions. But the German physicist, Planck, took note of his essay that Einstein's work was comparable to that of Copernicus, and that relativity quickly became a subject of research and discussion, Einstein has also received the attention of academia.
In 1907, Einstein listened to the proposal of the friend, submitted the famous paper to apply for the Federal University of the lecturer posts, but the answer is the paper can not understand. Although in the German physics Albert Einstein has been very famous, but in Switzerland, he was not a university faculty, many prestigious people began to injure him, in 1908, Einstein finally got the lecturer Of the post, and in the second year when the associate professor. In 1912, Einstein became a professor, in 1913, at the invitation of Planck as the newly established director of the Institute of Physics and the University of Berlin professor.
During this period, Einstein, in considering the promotion of the relativity that had been established, had two questions that made him uneasy. The first is the gravitational problem, the special theory of relativity for mechanics, thermodynamics and electrodynamics of the physical law is correct, but it can not explain the gravitational problem. Newton's gravitational theory is superfluous, and the gravitational force between the two objects is transmitted instantaneously, that is, at an infinite velocity, which is contrary to the view of the relativistic field and the limit of the speed of light. The second is the problem of non-inertia, the special theory of relativity and the previous physical laws, are only applicable to the inertial system. But in fact it is difficult to find the real inertia. Logically, all natural laws should not be confined to the inertial system, must be considered non-inertial system. Narrative relativity is difficult to explain the so-called twins paradox, the paradox is that there is a pair of twin brothers, brother in the spacecraft near the speed of light to do cosmic voyage, according to the relativistic effect, high-speed movement of the clock slow, Come back, my brother has become very old, because the earth has gone through for decades. In accordance with the principle of relativity, spacecraft relative to the Earth's high-speed movement, the Earth is also high-speed movement relative to the spacecraft, brother to see his brother become young, brother to see his brother should be young. This question simply can not answer. In fact, the narrow sense of relativity only deal with uniform linear motion, and brother to come back must go through a variable speed movement process, which is relativistic can not handle. Einstein is continuing to do the general theory of relativity when people are busy comprehending relatively specific relativity.
In 1907, Einstein wrote a long article on the theory of relativity and the resulting conclusions on the theory of relativity, in which Einstein first mentioned the principle of equivalence, and since then, Einstein The idea of equivalence is evolving. Based on the natural law of inertial mass and gravitational mass as the basis of the equivalent principle, it is proposed that the uniform gravitational field in the infinite small volume can replace the reference frame of accelerating motion. Einstein and put forward a closed box saying: in a closed box of the observer, no matter what method can not determine whether he is still in a gravitational field, or in the absence of gravitational field in the space for accelerated movement , Which is the most commonly used to explain the principle of equivalence, and inertia quality and gravitational quality is equivalent to the principle of a natural reasoning.
In November 1915, Einstein presented four papers to the Prussian Academy of Sciences. In these four papers, he proposed a new view of Mercury's recent point of advance and given the correct gravitational field equation. At this point, the basic problems of general relativity are solved, the general theory of relativity was born. In 1916, Einstein completed the long thesis "the basis of general theory of relativity", in this article, Einstein first applied to the inertial system of relativity known as the special theory of relativity, will only for the inertial system of the same laws The principle is called the principle of narrow relativity, and further expresses the principle of general relativity: the law of physics must be established for any way in which the system of motion is established.
Einstein's general theory of relativity holds that, due to the existence of matter, space and time will bend, and the gravitational field is actually a curved time and space. Einstein's theory of using the sun's gravity to bend the space is a good explanation for the 43 seconds that Mercury has been unable to explain in the past. The second largest predictor of general relativity is gravitational redshift, that is, in the strong gravitational field to the red side of the movement, 20 years, astronomers in astronomical observations confirmed this point. The third largest predictor of general relativity is that the gravitational field deflects the light and the gravitational field closest to the earth is the sun's gravitational field. Einstein predicted that distant stars would have a seven-second deflection if they swept through the sun. In 1919, under the encouragement of British astronomer Eddington, the British sent two expeditions to observe the total solar eclipse in two places. After careful study, the final conclusion was that the starlight did occur in the vicinity of the sun Seconds of deflection. The Royal Society and the Royal Astronomical Society officially read the observation report and confirm that the conclusion of general relativity is correct. "This is the most significant achievement of the theory of gravitation since the Newton era," said Einstein's theory of relativity, the greatest achievement of human thought, "said the famous physicist and president of the Royal Society, one". Einstein became a journalist, he wrote in 1916 a popular theory of relativity, "narrow and general theory of relativity", to 1922 has been republished 40 times, was translated into a dozen languages, widely spread.
Relativistic significance:
Since the establishment of the special theory of relativity and general relativity, it has been a long time, it has withstood the test of practice and history, is widely recognized as the truth. Relativity has a great influence on the development of modern physics and the development of modern human thought. Relativity from the logical thinking of the unity of the classical physics, so that the classic physics to become a perfect scientific system. On the basis of the theory of special relativity, the theory of relativity of the special relativity of Newtonian mechanics and Maxwell's electrodynamics system is unified. It is pointed out that they are obeying the principle of relativity and relativity, which is the covariance of Lorentz transformation. Newtonian mechanics is only a matter of low- A good approximation of law. On the basis of the generalized covariance, on the basis of the generalized covariance, the relationship between the local inertia length and the universal reference coefficient is established by the equivalent principle. The generalized covariant form of all physical laws is obtained, and the gravitational force Theory, and Newton gravitational theory is only its first approximation. This is fundamentally resolved before the physics is limited to the problem of inertia, from the logic to get a reasonable arrangement. Relativity examines the basic concepts of physics, time, space, material and movement, and gives a scientific and systematic view of time and space and material view, so that physics can become a perfect scientific system in logic.
The special relativity gives the law of motion of the object under high speed motion, and suggests that the quality and energy are equivalent, and the qualitative relationship is given. These two outcomes are not obvious for low-speed macro objects, but in the study of microscopic particles showed extreme importance. Because the speed of micro-particles are generally faster, some close to even reach the speed of light, so the physics of particles can not be separated from the theory of relativity. The qualitative relationship not only creates the necessary conditions for the establishment and development of quantum theory, but also provides the basis for the development and application of nuclear physics.
For Einstein's introduction of these new concepts, most of the physicists on earth, including the relativistic transformation of the founder of Lorentz, are unacceptable. Some people even said, "At that time the world only two and a half people understand the theory of relativity." The old method of thinking obstacles, so that this new physical theory until a generation after the majority of physicists are familiar with, even the Swedish Royal Academy of Sciences, in 1922 the Nobel Prize in Physics awarded to Einstein, only said "Because of his contribution to theoretical physics, but also because he found the law of the photoelectric effect." Einstein's Nobel Prize in physics awards even for Einstein's theory of relativity did not mention (Note: Relativity has not won the Nobel Prize, an important reason is the lack of a lot of facts to verify.)
Photoelectric effect
In 1905, Einstein proposed photon hypothesis, successfully explained the photoelectric effect, so won the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics.
Light is irradiated onto the metal, causing the electrical properties of the material to change. This phenomenon of light transmission is called the photoelectric effect (Photoelectric effect).
Photoelectric effect is divided into photoelectron emission, photoconductive effect and photovoltage effect. The former phenomenon occurs on the surface of the object, also known as external photoelectric effect. The latter two phenomena occur within the object, known as the photoelectric effect.
Hertz discovered the photoelectric effect in 1887, and Einstein first succeeded in explaining the photoelectric effect (the effect that the metal surface emits electrons under the action of light, the electrons emitted are called photoelectrons). When the wavelength of light is less than a certain critical value, it can emit electrons, that is, the limit wavelength, and the frequency of the corresponding light is called the limit frequency. The critical value depends on the metal material, and the energy of the emitted electrons depends on the wavelength of the light and has nothing to do with the light intensity, which can not be explained by the fluctuation of light. There is also a contradiction with the volatility of light, that is, the instantaneous nature of the photoelectric effect, according to volatility theory, if the incident light is weak, the irradiation time is longer, the metal can accumulate enough energy, fly out of metal surface. The fact is that as long as the frequency of light is higher than the limit frequency of the metal, the brightness of the light, whether strong or weak, is almost instantaneous, and no more than ten negative nine. The correct explanation is that the light must be composed of a strictly defined energy unit (ie, photon or photon) associated with the wavelength.
Photoelectric effect, the electron direction of the injection is not completely directional, but most are perpendicular to the metal surface, and the direction of light has nothing to do, just electromagnetic waves, but just high frequency oscillation of the orthogonal electromagnetic field, the amplitude is small, Electron emission direction.
Conservation of energy
E = mc ², material immortal law, that is the quality of the material immortal; energy conservation law, that is the material energy conservation.
Although these two great laws have been discovered, but people think that this is the two irrelevant laws, each of the different laws of nature. Even some people think that material immortality is a law of chemistry, the law of conservation of energy is a physical law, they belong to different areas of science.
Einstein believes that the quality of matter is a measure of inertia, energy is a measure of movement; energy and quality are not isolated from each other, but interrelated, inseparable. Changes in the quality of the object, will make the corresponding changes in energy; and changes in the energy of the object, but also the quality of the corresponding changes.
In the special theory of relativity, Einstein put forward the famous qualitative formula: E = mc ^ 2 (where E represents energy, m represents how much quality, c represents the speed of light, the approximate value of 3 × 10 ^ 8m / s, which Indicating that energy can be created with reduced quality).
Einstein's qualitative relationship formula, correctly explained the various nuclear reactions: take helium 4 (He4), its nuclei are composed of two protons and two neutrons. The quality of the helium 4 nucleus is equal to the sum of two protons and two neutron masses. In fact, this arithmetic is not established, the quality of helium nuclei than two protons, two neutron masses and the sum of 0.0302u (atomic mass units)! Why is this? Because when the two deuterons (each deuterium Nucleus contains one proton, one neutron) is aggregated into a helium 4 nucleus, the release of a large number of atomic energy. When generating 1 g of helium 4 atoms, about 2.7 x 10 ^ 12 Joules of atomic energy are released. Because of this, the quality of the helium 4 nucleus is reduced.
This example vividly shows that when two deuterium nuclei are polymerized into one helium-4 nucleus, it seems that the mass is not conserved, that is, the mass of the helium-4 nuclei is not equal to the sum of the two deuteron masses. However, with the mass-energy relationship formula, the loss of helium 4 nuclei is exactly the same as the mass that is reduced by the release of atomic energy during the reaction.
Einstein from the height of the update, clarified the material immortality law and the law of the law of conservation of energy, pointed out that the close relationship between the two laws, so that human understanding of nature and a step further.
Cosmic constant
Einstein, in proposing the theory of relativity, introduced the cosmological constant (in order to explain the existence of a static universe with a material density of zero, he introduced a term proportional to the gauge tensor in the gravitational field equation, denoted by the symbol Λ. The constant is very small, and the scale of the galaxy is negligible. Only in the cosmic scale, Λ can be meaningful, so called cosmic constant, the so-called fixed value of the anti-gravitational value) into his equation. He believes that there is an anti-gravity, with gravity balance, to promote the universe is limited and static. When Hubble showed the astronomical observations of the expanding universe to Einstein, Einstein said, "This is the biggest mistake my life has ever committed.
The universe is inflated. Hubble and so that the anti-gravity is not there, due to the gravity between the galaxies, to promote the expansion of more and more slowly. There is a twisting force between the galaxies that causes the universe to expand, that is, dark energy. 7 billion years ago, they "defeated" the dark matter, become the master of the universe. The latest research shows that the dark matter and dark energy account for about 96% of the universe, based on the mass composition (only the actual quality, not the virtual matter). It seems that the universe will continue to accelerate the expansion until the disintegration of death. (There are other claims, controversial). Although the cosmic constant exists, the value of the gravitational force is far more than the gravitational force. "I finally understand why he (Einstein) liked this theory so much that he still studied cosmological constants for many years, and cosmological constant is still one of the biggest questions of physics today," Linde said in a funny manner.
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